Criminal Law Liability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Criminal Law Liability - Essay Example There is also the legal duty to act because of an actual or implied contract. For example, in R. v. Pitwood (1902)2 a defendant was convicted of manslaughter after he failed to close a level crossing gate with the result of a hay cart and a train colliding. The collision resulted in the death of a man. Pitwood argued that he had no legal duty to the deceased, but Judge Wright held that he did have one arising from his contract of employment. While R. v. Pitwood is often regarded as a classic case of criminal liability for omission, Wright's actual words leave some room for doubt: Thus the judge may actually have been seeing liability coming from the fact that Pitwood had left the level crossing gate open rather than the fact that he had not shot the level crossing gate. Thus did the liability come from an action or an inaction It would seem that the former occurred. This was a case of gross negligence manslaughter, a crime that is a useful background to the whole subject of criminal liability for omission. In general such manslaughter requires the following elements: Duty is imposed by common law statute. ... A breach is the failure to do something or doing something incorrectly according to the standard expected. The causal link is the fact that death has resulted from this failure with no intervening cause while gross negligence is the fact that the standard of performance or non-performance is so bad as to make it criminal. A "reasonable person" standard can apply when there is no actual contractual arrangement. Thus if a 'reasonable person" would have acted in a manner that would have prevented or avoided the resulting damage/injury then the defendant may be found liable. For example, in R. v. Miller4 (1982) a defendant was held liable for criminal damage to a building that had been caused by a fire. Miller was a tramp who had fallen asleep in a disused property while smoking a cigarette. The cigarette fell onto the mattress he was asleep on, and when he woke up because of the smoke, Miller did not attempt to put the cigarette/smoldering out but merely moved to another room and fell asleep. The court found that Miller was bound to act because the dangerous circumstance had been of his own making, and the omission that had subsequently occurred was of a criminal nature. By contrast, if Miller had been a person passing by the house and had seen it smoldering but had done nothing he would not have had a duty to put the fire out and thus the other elements of the crime would be irrelevant. Miller, as well as Pitwood also brings up a problem that has yet to be fully resolved regarding criminal liability for omission. The problem revolves around the fact that a general principle of criminal law is that the mens rea of the offence must exist at the time of the actus reus. Essentially there must be a coincidence of the actus reus and the mens

Exploring Cultural anthropology Essay Example for Free

Exploring Cultural anthropology Essay Cultural difference(s) is one of the research topics that best suits for a cultural anthropologist to study. In my own perspective as a cultural anthropologist, cultural difference in the United States of America is one of the topics I might propose to research. In the United States where the issue of racism is of most major concern among other races, the history of racial discrimination has passed down until today. Many races including Asians are discriminated with regards to services, priorities, socialization, and its laws. Although there are sufficient laws that suspend racial discrimination among other races, this issue will still be in existence because of each cultural differences. This study may help in understanding better cultural differences/racism where it is in existence in the whole and is at most importance to international relations. Why would you choose this culture and topic for research? I chose the culture of United States since it has been the model of every other culture in the world. Many countries are instigated to pattern their country to the United States political system, diversity in religion, economy, and culture and traditions. As a world’s sole superpower, its culture plays an important role in maintaining its political and economic power to the world. American sports in example, military tradition, and advancement in science, arts and in entertainment (Hollywood); these are the things that draws political and economic power to the United States. Its culture is of most interest by other countries in the world. With regards to racism, I chose this topic for the reason that, until today, the United States struggles in eliminating or otherwise minimized racial discrimination domestically. It is a human nature to treat other races superior or inferior among them. It is of our interest the better ways if eliminate, prevent racial discrimination among others. The study of United States culture will give better understanding what it takes to be a charismatic country and a representation to the world. The study of racism will give better understanding how will we become accustomed to other races (The Journal of American Culture, 2009). What do you hope to discover, accomplish, or address by studying this culture? How could you prepare for culture shock? The culture of the United States through careful study would lay the foundation how a developing will and/or a poor country rise to power, elevate their political and economic influence to developed countries, and improved their standard of living via instigating American culture. I’m hoping to give details on different cultures, and address the needs of other people towards information dissemination. With regards to culture shock, studying culture may help in adjusting and/or adapt to culture differences. References â€Å"The Journal of American Culture. † American Family Traditions, (2009). American Family Traditions. Retrieved June 11, 2009 from americanfamilytraditions database.

Authenticity For Investigating The Theory Of Musical Cultures Media Essay

Authenticity For Investigating The Theory Of Musical Cultures Media Essay For years authenticity has been an intriguing issue for journalists and academics investigating the theory of musical cultures. The early investigations concerned the comparison between the integral, honest and authentic folk music deriving from traditional culture against artificial, manufactured and inauthentic products of mass mediated and marketed business (Gardner, 2005). Alongside the popularisation of mass culture and the industries behind it, music fans developed the perception on traditional music, reflecting lives, practices and folklore of people by means that pop music was not. In order to differentiate themselves from the masses, people started to look for authenticity in music as identification with their culture, experiences, feelings and views (Moore, 2002). Also the ways in which the textual content has been delivered, as well as the means of instrumental expression were significantly related to the culture of music listeners (Wiseman-Trowse, 2008). With the technological progress new instruments (for example synthesisers) were introduced by the increasing number of music performers, who at first were rejected as inauthentic, not associated with traditional artists craft. However, technology soon started to form new musical cultures, effectively mixing with the existing, long-established ones (Moore, 2002). Not only the instruments were subject to technical changes; the ways of documentation of artists performances also transformed over the years, supporting better quality recordings as well as more advanced and precise techniques of producing and editing recorded music (Persson, 2006). The use of digital music production has become more popular in recent years, allowing fixes and changes to the recorded performance. This study shall examine the relationship between authenticity of an artists craft and digital music production techniques. Background of the problem Many artists, even those who derive from the cultures they claim to represent, tend to work on improving their studio recordings to the point of even mechanical perfection. This can be the pitch excellence of every note played or sung, as well as beats and bars precision. Also the musical arrangements offer broader opportunities that can be acquired much easier than by traditional means, for example with digital synthesiser imitating the sound of violin or brass (Wiseman-Trowse, 2008). Such an attitude stands in opposition to the traditional meaning of craft as a profession based on particular set of skills. Thus, by denying the conventions of honesty, truth and genuineness, being authentic as an artist can be rejected by some of the fans. By identifying the correlation between such operations and perception on the artists craft in terms of its authenticity, another field in the music culture theory shall be acknowledged. In other words, understanding how the creation of recordings influence authenticity will update the subject data by one of the most recent issues. Statement of the problem By increasing ease of access to digital sound recording and editing tools, a number of music fans become more aware of how music is being made. This has influence on perceiving artists authenticity, especially referring to their craft, which can lead to interpreting them as well as producers as inauthentic manufacturers of music, whose main factor is no longer self-expression, but commercial success only. Statement of purpose The value terms of authenticity, honesty, integrity and realness are probably the most loaded (Moore, 2002). In an effort to identify possible correlations between those related to an artists craft and digital studio production techniques, the study will examine the perception on recorded music and how contemporary technologies can change it. In doing so, the study will uncover the key determinants of such changes. Rationale Digital recording and editing of music is relatively new subject. Therefore, the availability of academic articles on its impact on authenticity of an artists skills is very limited. Most of the bibliographic sources pertinent to the concept of authenticity, dating back to the late 1960s, investigate the subject area from different angles (Wiseman-Trowse, 2008). Although the majority of research has been conducted since the early 1990s, which is the time when Digital Audio Workstations were gaining popularity, very little of the studies focused on the relationship between authenticity and digital studio production techniques. A number of studies investigated authenticity as an ideological notion motivated culturally and industrially, included mostly in lyrics, interviews and artists image itself (Wiseman-Trowse, 2008). Drawing from the fields of history and music cultures evolvement, several studies looked at areas such as development of folk music, which primarily celebrated provincial culture, as well as rock genre, originally belonging to the entertainment music domain (Moore, 2002). Even more recent research does not cover the music production angle of the problem, only mentioning it occasionally in different sources. This study is guided by the rationale of exploring these determinants. Aims and objectives of the study The aim of the study is to identify the relationship between modern music production techniques and the craft of an artist. As influenced by the aim of the study, the primary objective of this dissertation is to examine and analyse the impact that digital retuning, elastic audio and general fixing of recorded sound and the impact of these changes on authenticity of an artists profession. In this context the main objectives of the research study could be stated as: To identify the correlation between contemporary music production techniques and the craft of an artist To evaluate the influence that digital changes, made to the recorded sound, have on authenticity of the artists profession Research question Is applying any digital changes or fixes to recorded sound influence authenticity of an artists craft? Definitions of terms The following definitions are supplied to guarantee a common understanding of the primary terms used in this study. Mass culture is the whole of the culture shared by all, except for infrequent individuals who still appreciate the traditional high culture, which stands to the opposite to the term. It is argued that the mass, meaning the people, enthusiastically accepts whatever manipulative elites provide it with (DiMaggio, 2004). Craft is any object or output that is the development of practical and aesthetic skills and of the vision through the formation and creation of personal work, sold for profit (Houghton, 2005). Although it must have high degree of hand-made input, it does not have to consist of traditional materials or ways of production. The design of craft may be culturally set in the geographical place of creation (McAuley and Fillis, 2005). Digital Audio Workstation (DAW) is a digitally based platform that is designed mainly for recording and editing sound. It replaces the traditional tape-based recording techniques, which were complex and time consuming, with fast, precise and convenient digital ones, providing wider choice of tools to process recorded sound (Dye, 2008). Research method The study was both desk-based and ethnographic. Books and articles on authenticity and different angles of defining the concept, as well as on modern audio production techniques were reviewed. In addition, primary data on perceiving authenticity by artists, producers and fans of music was conducted using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. The study also examined transformations in interpreting authenticity of an artists skill in relation to changes applied to the sound. Assumptions and limitations This study was affected by several assumptions and limitations. First, it used a multiple choice survey, which means that the respondents were not entirely free to specify their views on the questions. This could imply some of the answers not to be accurately representative in terms of the respondents point of view, but only closely related to it. The second limitation of this study is the sample size, which was small and limited to the High Wycombe based population and online respondents only. In fact, there is no indication that the sample in this study is representative of the broader population. The third limitation of this research is the fact that the collection of data took place at particular period of time. Thus, there is no guarantee that the received responses would be indicative of responses requested and given at other time. There is also a possibility that other issues, remaining outside of the researchers control (time of day, recent conflicts, setting, or tiredness of the respondents) might influence the answers (Laurel, 2003). Description of thesis organisation The research consists of five chapters. The first one shapes the area of interest and delineates the examined problem. The research questions are introduced, the studys limitations are characterised and the selected methodology is generally and briefly discussed. The second chapter reviews literature on authenticity and modern music production techniques, particularly relating to those basing on digital sound changing. The third chapter discusses the studys methodology, the strategies used for collection of primary and secondary data, as well as concludes with a rationalization of the defined selections, recognising some inherent boundaries. The fourth chapter presents the studys discoveries as updated by the primary and secondary data collection and answers the research questions described in the first chapter. Responses to the research questions evaluated in the first chapter and an investigation on the accuracy of the research assumptions are presented in the findings. The fifth chapter concluded the research and defines the studys recommendations. Conclusion As described in this chapter, the studys subject shall be the relationship between digitally based music production techniques and authenticity of an artists craft. The next chapter presents the literature reviewed for this study. CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on authenticity and contemporary music production techniques. Although there is a wealth of literature on the subject of authenticity, very few focuses on the process of the formation of recorded music, while none exploits the correlation between an artists craft authenticity and modern audio production. Instead, and as will be seen throughout this review, the majority of studies consider the socio-cultural aspect of perceiving artists authenticity by fans and theorists of music, as well as the historical one. 2.2 Authenticity in the history of popular music The early theorists of popular music warned against the expanding mass consuming culture that offered artificial art, considered to be inauthentic. For example, Walter Benjamin stated his predictions concerning the world of art and music as uniformed by mass production and with no perspectives for any heterogeneity (1935). Before the growth of the culture oriented industry, musical styles and practices were less influenced by what is considered entertaining and instead they were developing independently, aiming for pure expression of the art. Then, the rise of the business, led to the standardisation of popular culture, which was influenced by its modernisation and industrialisation (Adorno, 1991). In other words, the industry started to apply fixed formulas to the music, considering them to make it more entertaining and therefore more likely to be consumed by more people. Such an approach from the industrys side, led the fans to start missing more honest and integral cultural expressions, and thus, to seek for more genuine, traditional alternative. This was often found in folk music, as by the specifications of it, folk has been developed traditionally as an expression of peoples lives and experiences in different manner than popular culture (Gardner, 2005). Because people were searching for identity and integrity, that would distinguish themselves from the masses, the industry started to adopt different genres, marketing them as more soulful and real options (Sloop and Herman, 1998). It was not only the industry standards that influenced perceiving music as inauthentic. Together with the technological development, people started using amplified electric guitars or electronic instruments, such as synthesisers, which led to a division of music listeners (Moore, 2002). This was quickly adopted by the industry, which appeared to separate music clubs between traditional and contemporary ones. The situation was as serious as the traditionally oriented venues tended to refuse to accept a performer who used modern technology as part of the performance (Boyes, 1993). 2.3 What is authenticity Although the concept of authenticity is explained differently in variety of sources, most of them present similar view that the definition if very subjective. Allan Moore for example, presents a set of value terms that are identified with authenticity: real, honest, truthful, with integrity, actual, genuine, essential and sincere (2002). Also Gilbert and Pearson specify the requirements of authentic rock of the 1980s, wherein the fundamental role of artists was to represent the culture from which they come, speaking the truth of their situations and using particular type of instrumentation (1999). In other words, these theorists claim that authenticity is not any fixed combination of musical sounds or set of lyrical content, but it refers to the artist or the whole of their performance as a matter of interpretation, which should be made from cultural and therefore historical position (Rubidge, 1996). Thus, it is not the integral part of a performance, but something that can be assign ed to one, meaning that the choice whether it is authentic or not, depends on who the one is. Moore considers the rock discourse to be the one frequently referring to authenticity in the textual and musical spheres. He argued that it is the style of writing and performing that made the audience decide of its authenticity, and that it particularly referred to the singer (2002). What also should be noted is the attributes of an artists intimacy and immediacy, that indicate authenticity, meaning that one should uncover their feelings and experiences in unmediated shape and with the purity of sound production (Moore, 2002). Grossberg goes further by stating that the difference between the authentic and the inauthentic lies within the purpose that an artist has in the musical expression. Whether it is the art itself, the public or the income driven by this, defines the authentic as the opposite of commercial (1992). Thus, in order to classify the integrate, the performers realism and lack of pretence have to be examined (Moore, 2002). 2.3.1 First person authenticity The fundamental form of authenticity that was introduced by Charles Taylor (1997) as an expression that can be outlined in an initiatory instance, which Moore later describes as immediacy of expression (2002). This concept has also been reviewed by Bohlman, who identifies the authentic as the constant demonstration of the stylistic genesis, which means the purity of practice (1988). In other words, he presents his idea of an authentic artist as the one whose musical style remains loyal to the origins of the genre. On the other hand, Grossberg (1992) indicates the honesty of experience as the main determinant of authenticity, meaning the lyrical content of the song expressing real experiences of an artist. Both Bohlmans and Grossbergs views are supported by Redhead, who claims that real instruments (referring to the purity of practice) should go along real feelings; the artistic transparency and loyalty to the roots of music in conjunction with a genuine message (1990). Walser argues that even technological mediation, for example use of signal modifiers or amplification, is synonymous to pretence, pointing at artificiality and thus inauthenticity of an act (1993). Such an approach is related to Taylors authenticity of positionality, which describes the authenticity of musicians who reject to get influenced by the commercial music, for example by implementing the style of Western musicians by non-Western ones (1997). Wiseman-Trowse underlines another aspect of the immediate performance, which is the stage one, where an artist has actual opportunity to engage the audience, as opposed to the recorded performance (2008). On stage it is possible for a listener to compare both recorded and live ones, as well as for an artist to convert the listeners perception on authenticity of the performance. On this basis one can decide whether it is the genuine artistic skill that is present on a recording, or rather a result of the work of a skilful producer (Auslander, 1999). As Moore underlines the concept of the first person authenticity, all of the above understandings of the term are connected by the direction towards they lead. This entails the perception on authenticity that is implemented by the personal interpretation made by an entity being a part of the audience (2002). In other words, the first person authenticity occurs when a performer is received by an individual as an integral one who expresses their art in an unmediated way. 2.3.2 Third person authenticity Fornà ¤s distinguishes three types of authenticity: social, subjective and meta ones. They differ with regard to the act of judgement: first is made by a particular community, second depends on the individual, while the last one is evidenced by the consideration of the performer or the author of lyrics (1995). Although meta-authenticity is described as an act of validation made by the author, this side of the subject is also present in the other two types. According to Grossberg, the authentic performer needs to express their own feelings, which are simultaneously shared with the public (1992). This type of authenticity is pictured by adopting the original blues music style, deriving from the economically poor Mississippi delta, to the 1960s movement represented by artists like Cream. The band used to play a cover song of Robert Johnson, Crossroads. Even though Cream did not grow neither over the Mississippi area, nor in the 1930s, they found themselves identifying with the song (Coleman, 1994). This allowed them to express themselves through reproducing Johnsons art and remaining authentic (at least in their own opinion). The third person authenticity is supported by Vaughan Williams, who claims that the artist can never create from the state of entire independence, without any influence of earlier musical acts. Thus, the musician needs predecessors in order to base the artistic experience on them (1987). Thus, the third person authenticity occurs if a performing artist successfully represents the ideas, experiences and feelings of another. 2.3.3 Second person authenticity Grossberg specifies another type of authenticity that, as opposed to the first and third person ones, is being justified by the artists capability to successfully express the experiences of the listeners (1992). Thus, it is the audience that recognises the authentic by basing on their own feelings and thoughts that are presented by an artist. Moore exemplifies this approach by mentioning the 1980s rock scene, which was dominated by synthesisers. The dedication to traditional rock was therefore exposed by the focus on the guitar based instrumentation used by the bands like U2, Big Country, Simple Minds, The Alarm or Bruce Springsteen, who derive from socially disadvantaged areas. By using the guitar, that was easily reachable, they tried to metaphorically escape from their reality (2002). This means, that it is culturally constructed process of artists authentication made by the audience that seeks for the validation of their own experiences in art. 2.3.4 Authenticity as a renewable resource Richard Peterson (1997) introduced the concept of authenticity as a renewable resource, claiming that it is renovated with every era and expansion of popular music with its production. He states that the shifting conditions are reflected by the meaning of authenticity, which is defined by a collective argumentation of fans, performers and producers. It is argued that authenticity is not inseparable in the recording, or a performance, which intend to be authentic by design. In popular culture, the particulars of the words meaning are not controlled by specialists and authorities; it aims to be credible qualified to a explicit model and simultaneously remain original. In other words, it has to fit within fixed framework, not being an imitation of it at the same time. Thus, what is authentic, varies continuously renewing all the time and never remaining static. However, Robert Gardner (2005) disagrees with the generalisation of authenticity as renewable resource. He points out that even the genre on which Peterson has based his research, should not be considered authentic in the contemporary state of it, having been deprived of its integral roots, which displays for example on ABCs Monday Night Football, which uses Hank Williams Jrs theme song. 2.4 Digital audio Todays recording systems, like Pro Tools, Cuebase or Logic, are using the digital way of sound capturing. It is then saved as samples, which are small bits that recorded sound consists of. Frank D. Cook describes sound samples as analogical to pixels in digitally saved images (2009). In order to understand digital audio, it is important to present what sound essentially is. When a human ear hears a sound, it in fact experiences variations of the air pressure around it. These are result of vibrations of objects, that are moving in cycles. If the object is vibrating at a frequency that falls within the range of human hearing, we perceive it as a sound (Cook, 2009, p 21). The actual character of the sound depends on the waveform, frequency and the vibrations amplitude. 2.4.1 Waveform The waveform is the very thing that creates the humans perception on the shape of the sound. This means that one can find out what is the source of the sound, as every object vibrates differently, giving the waveform the distinctive nature and tone (Cook, 2009). 2.4.2 Frequency Human hearing has the range of approximately 20 and 20000 cycles (the whole back-and-forth vibrations) per second, measured in Hertz (Hz). This determines the pitch of the sound, where lower frequencies generate lower sounds; while higher frequencies produce higher pitches (Cook, 2009). For example, the frequency of 130 Hz is assigned to the musical note C3, whereas the semitone lower B2 names the frequency of 123 Hz. 2.4.3 Amplitude The loudness perceived by the human ear depends on the pressure or intensity of the sound variations and is measured in decibels (dB). Thus, the sound becomes louder as the amplitude of vibrations increases. For example, the loudness of a regular conversation is 60 dB. In order to double the loudness, the amplitude would have to be increased to 70 dB (Cook, 2009). 2.5 Modern studio production techniques Dan Daley suggests that listening to the recorded vocals on the radio nowadays brings to mind the increasing popularity of guitar effects in the 1970s, when fuzz, distortion, flanging and wah-wah processors overwhelmed traditional sounding guitars (2003). As it was argued then, whether the non-purist approach is inauthentic or rather an artistic expression of modernity, it is arguable if changing recorded vocals or instruments digitally can be perceived as genuine representation of art (Daley, 2003). The turning point of pitch correction technique came along Chers single Believe in 1998, on which digital vocal processing has been not only used, but made very noticeable. Since then, the number of artists using these features is continuously increasing, as well as there are more and more ways of using them, even to the point of intentional distortion of recorded sound (Daley, 2003). 2.5.1 Pitch correction The pitch correction feature, available by both DAW plug-ins as well as standalone programs allows automatic or manual change of recorded sounds pitch. The most common use of pitch correction is fixing a vocal performance; if a singer sings a false note, the digital technology allows the producer to fix it quickly, without another take. There are two ways of correcting pitch. Automatic mode usually lets the user to choose a musical scale according to which both flat and sharp notes should be corrected. Manual mode provides a graph of the notes that allows the producer to change the pitch of separate sounds manually, by moving the graphical representation of them up and down (Bartlett and Bartlett, 2009). 2.5.2 Elastic audio Huber and Runstein point out another feature that provided by digital technology. Elastic audio allows the change of the timing of recorded sound (2009), for example fixing a guitarists performance, who might have recorded a solo slower than the actual song and then speed it up. This tool does not only generate a change of a tracks speed, but also each sound can be stretched or shrunk separately and manually by the producer (Huber and Runstein, 2009). Such a tool can repair a poor performance that is out of time and make it sound technically perfect. 2.6 Contemporary production techniques and authenticity An American singer and songwriter, Neko Case, expressed her views on auto-tune in the interview for Pitchfork. She claims that singing is not important anymore, as instead bad singing is fixed by the producer (2006). Case also argues that an artist who uses shift correction on vocals cannot be taken seriously, losing all the integrity. Moreover, the singer clearly points out that an artists craft needs more work and thus, those who do not spend this extra hour in the studio trying to hit the note are not valid (Case, 2006). Allison Moore, a singer from Nashville, goes one step further in her proclaiming about using modern production tools on records. She put a sticker on the front cover of her LP release, Miss Fortune, which states Absolutely no vocal tuning or pitch-correction was used in the making of this record (2002). She is a keen supporter of the view that albums should be recorded and mixed in the old way, that is becoming progressively rare (Daley, 2003). On the other hand, the guitarist of The White Stripes, The Raconteurs and The Dead Weather, Jack White argues that pop artists, like Britney Spears can be more authentic than Tom Waits or Bob Dylan (2009). His rationale for such a controversial opinion was that he finds more authentic an artist whose musical expression is made the way they best know and feel. In other words, White points out that in the modern music world somebody who has grown listening mainly to pop (thus commercial, manufactured and by definition inauthentic) music, knows it as their primary way of articulating feelings and experiences and therefore is not pretentious, which leads to perceiving them as authentic (2009). Some genres can be more focused on the authentic side of studio recording. An example of such an approach is Pearl Jam, representing grunge music. The bands drummer, Matt Cameron called their album Riot Act is an anti-Pro Tools record: Its more interesting hearing musicians in a room playing hard, with the tempo fluctuating slightly as the band heats up. Perfection is boring (2009). He pointed out a significant thing about the modern technology by recalling one of the most popular DAWs as a synonym of commercial and unreal music. Josh Binder argues that the features of pitch/timing of a recorded track does not have to be used only as a tool for fixing a bad performance. This young producer, who has been learning his profession in the world that has already accepted the existence of digital retuning, claims that he uses Auto-Tune (one of the leading digital tools used for pitch correction) to enrich the vocal sound of even a perfectly sung track (2009). An engineer, Michael Brauer, applies no limitations in terms of using available technologies to make a good-sounding record. He states that he is employed for the purpose of helping to make songs that can be sold, regardless of the artists abilities (2009). Nevertheless, he still believes that one needs talent to be an artist and if they cannot sing or play at all, no technology can help them (2009). 2.7 Conclusion The subject of authenticity alone has generated vast amount of theoretical angles of consideration. This has been motivated by the very nature of it, assuming that perception of what is honest, genuine or integral depends on the actual perceiver. Moreover, three basic ways of interpreting the authentic have been specified, which determined further research direction. Furthermore, the digital music production techniques have been described, clarifying how recorded sound can be changed or fixed by contemporary recording and mixing tools. The chapter also presented different perceptions on the relationship between digital production techniques and authenticity of an artists craft. Chapter III describes the methodology used for this study. A review of the studys purpose and investigated questions was presented. This is followed by an outline of the research design and the survey instrument used for it, along with the procedures for data collection and analysis. CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter reflects the studys selected research methodology. As will be seen, the methodology is the subject of the purpose of this study and is supported by the evaluation of the most beneficial approach responding to the research questions. As such, this chapter presents the purpose of the study, the research questions and hypothesis, as well as discusses the data collection and data analysis procedures and the limitations of the research. 3.1 Purpose of the study The purpose of this study is to examine the concept of authenticity with specific focus on its perception as influenced by applying digital studio production techniques. The reason for doing so is determining what impact changing the recorded sound has on authenticity of an artists craft. To fulfil this purpose, it was significant to review literature on authenticity, as well as on contemporary music production techniques. This necessitated an exploration of the nature of perceiving authenticity by music fans, producers (record manufacturers), as well as artists themselves. At the same time it was important to explore the ways in which recorded sound, being the performance can be edited, fixed and generally changed. All of this was done in order to fulfil the primary purpose of the study, which was the identification of the influence modern production practices can have on authenticity of an artists skill. As it can be presumed from the above, the current research has an explanatory purpose. According to Silverman, the aim for explanatory research is needed to define an occurrence or make a complex subject comprehensible (2006). This can be done by clarifying the correlations between variables. The purpose of the study aims to explain th

Animal Farm - Elements Of Lite :: Animal Farm Essays

I believe that George Orwell used direct characterization to introduce his characters. For example when he introduced Old Major he said, â€Å"he was twelve years old and had lately grown rather stout, but he was still a majestic looking pig, with a wise and benevolent appearance in spite of the fact that his tushes had never been cut†. Another example is when he introduced Snowball and Napoleon, there he said, â€Å"Pre-eminent among the pigs were two young boats named Snowball and Na0oleaon, whom My. Jones was breeding up for sale. Napoleon was a large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way. Snowball was a more vivacious pig than Napoleon, quicker speech and more attentive, but was not considered to have the depth of character.† George Orwell also described them with their appearance before we actually saw them. We also learned somewhat about the characters by the speec hes that they give; Old Major could be seen as the leader of the animals because everyone looked up to, in my thoughts he talked with power. In the book I feel that Snowball is the protagonist and Napoleon is the antagonist. Snowball was the likeable person among the animals also very admirable. The other animals looked up to him and not only because he was the leader. He put effort into the ideas that he and all the other animals came up with. He also worked with the animals and did not slack off because he was the leader. Napoleon on the other hand took advantage of his rank. He did not work with the other animals and broke all the rules. When this happened he made an excuse or changed the rule. For example the original commandment stated that â€Å"No animal shall drink alcohol†, but after getting drunk the rule mysteriously changed to â€Å"No animal shall drink alcohol in excess.† This and a few other rules that were changed are a few examples. The major commandment that he broke though was â€Å"No animal shall kill any other animal†, but when he instructed his nine bodyguards to kill some geese , the rule mysteriously changed. The new rule stated that â€Å"NO animal shall kill any other animal without cause.† At this point it shows that he really is an antagonist. I also feel that the humans were also antagonists, just of the fact how they treated the animals.

BF Skinner and Motivation

Motivation is a term used in psychology to mean the cause of behavior that is persistently directed toward a goal. A simple reflex action, such as jerking one’s hand away from a hot stove, is not said to be motivated in the psychological sense. Motivation is usually made up of a combination of motives, which may also be called drives, incentives, or interests. Drives usually activate an individual to satisfy a physiological need, such as for food, sleep, or relief from pain.Incentives and interests are usually said to stimulate action that satisfies emotional and mental needs or desires. Motivation is often based on acquired social values. Such values may motivate a person to seek a college education or to win the approval of others. Another person, with different social values, might reject higher education for the immediate goal of a job in order to buy a car and expensive clothes. Adequate motivation is one of the important conditions for efficient learning. In general, the stronger the motivation, the more effectively the student will learn.Motivation research is the study of consumer’s reasons for buying or not buying certain items or services, and for preferring to do business with one firm rather than with another. Such research is a special interest to advertising agencies. Great emphasis is placed on discovering the consumer’s hidden, or unconscious, motives. To discover these motives, researchers use special tests and interviews that must be conducted and interpreted by psychologists. For example, in projective tests individuals are asked to respond to things such as words, sentences, and pictures.The responses are studied for the purpose of discovering various attitudes and opinions, called images. These images might depend on factors such as social class, occupation, age, and sex of the respondents, and can serve as a guide in creating advertisements. It might be found, for example, that a product is more likely to sell if its a dvertisement makes a person feel that his social status will improve if he buys the product. Not all psychologists accept the same theory of motivation or agree on the best way to conduct motivation research.However, conclusions reached by psychologists can serve as a source of ideas for advertising agencies. Thesis Statement: This study summarizes the field of motivation and BF Skinners theoretical views and discuss his impact on the motivation field. II. Background B. F. Skinner was the foremost behavioral psychologist in the United States. Behavioral psychology, as distinguished from the earlier, mentalistic school which focused on the mind of man, is concerned with predicting and controlling the behavior of organisms, man included.Skinner’s main work has been based in the principles operant (observable) conditioning, whereby the organism’s behavioral responses in a situation are reinforced or discouraged according to a system of rewards and punishments. Skinnerâ₠¬â„¢s experiments have shown that, through such conditioning, animal behavior can be controlled and predicted to a far greater than was ever thought possible (Smith & Sarason 18). Burrhus Frederick Skinner was born in March 20, 1904 in Susquehanna, Pa.After graduating from Hamilton College he spent a year trying to write fiction and poetry but soon came to the conclusion that his talents law elsewhere (although he did eventually write a novel, Walden Two (1948), in which he describes a utopian community based on operant conditioning). He then went to Harvard University where he obtained a Ph. D. in psychology. An important influence there was the biologist W. J. Crozier, introduced him to animal experimentation. After teaching for several years at Minnesota and Indiana universities he joined the Harvard faculty in 1948.Skinner’s most important is the Behavior of Organisms (1938), in which he presents the basic principles of operant conditioning. These might best be understood in the context of typical experiment of Skinner’s. A rat is the context at 80 to 90 percent of its normal weight and punt into a device now known as a Skinner box. This device provides a stark environment that restricts what can happen to the rat to those events the experimenter can control or observe. The box contains an opening, through which food may be presented, and a lever.The rat presses the lever a number of times to obtain pellets of food. The rat‘s bar-press is called an operant. It does not matter how the rat presses the bar—with its paw, its tail, or its nose—the operant is the same because the consequences are the same, the eventual production of food (Smith & Sarason 18). By means of scheduling the reinforcement—the reward of food—for various numbers of bar-presses or at various time intervals, remarkably stable patters of bar-pressing may be observed. Skinner has extended to education his idea that behavior can be controlled b est in restricted environments.Teaching machines developed by him and his students immediately label correct or incorrect students’ answers to questions programmed into the machines. Thus, the students are given prompt reinforcement for the required response. According to Skinner, operant conditioning may be used to control one’s own behavior as well as he behavior of others. Only by arranging conditions so that one’s behavior is reinforced can self-control and smoking clinic made use of operant conditioning. Skinner’s ideas have also been used in behavior therapy. He believes that undesirable behavior exists, at least in part, because it is reinforced.For example, a parent may reinforce a child’s tantrums by paying more attention to the child. Through therapy, undesirable behavior may be changed by removing the reinforcement for it and reinforcing instead some other, preferable response. III. Discussion A. Skinner and Radical Behaviourism By the e nd of the first decade of the twentieth century, Freud’s method of introspection had dominated American psychology. It has become the norm and a traditional method. However, a new set of theory had developed out from dissatisfaction of the introspection method.They were convinced that the introspective method has insurmountable limitations for revealing the nature of man. They were certain that consciousness could not be accurately studied at all and decided to discard it entirely from their scientific work. Some had even denied the existence of consciousness merely because one person cannot observe it in another. Instead, they turned to man’s overt behaviour, which they studied through objective methods (Smith & Sarason 18). Their study delved into the environmental causes and how these elicit a response from an individual.This approach had come to be known as behaviourism, which also formed the basis for experimental research in the field of psychology (â€Å"The Be haviourist Approach†). A leading contemporary figure of behaviourism is B. F. Skinner of Harvard University. Skinner does not deny that mental events, images, and feelings occur within us (B. F. Skinner. â€Å"Are Theories of Learning Necessary? †), although he maintains that these are themselves behaviours rather then causes (R. Smith, I. Sarason, and B. Sarason. â€Å"The Behavioural Perspective: Humans as Reactors†).Theirs was a psychology based on stimulus-response connections, which they believed were established through a process much like the â€Å"association of ideas† first suggested by Aristotle and developed by the British philosophers of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. The basic concept of the behaviourists was that behaviour grows more complex through this process of forming new connections between stimuli and responses originally unrelated. Thus, in viewing man’s behaviour as made up of discrete, independent stim ulus-response units, behaviourism was atomistic in its approach.It proposes that much of our behaviour is dependent upon immediate consequences. A person learns certain behaviours as he reacts (responds) to a stimulus in the environment (see Are Theories of Learning Necessary? †). When such responses are positively reinforced, it is prone to be adapted. Through the process of shaping in Skinner’s operant conditioning (a significant contribution to the school of behaviourism), it could even allow for the eventual emergence of responses not yet in the person’s existing behavioural storehouse.Skinner likens the process of behaviour shaping to the way clay is moulded by the sculptor to assume its final form. A considerable contrast to Freud’s psychoanalytic approach then of behaviourism is the latter’s argument that the proper subject matter of psychology was observable, or overt, behaviour, not unobservable inner consciousness. Whereas psychoanalysis b elieves that behaviour is caused by the unconscious, in contrast, behaviourists see human beings as a product of their learning histories. Behaviourists argue that it is erroneous to believe that human behaviour is caused by inner factors.Skinner says that this diverts the attention from the real causes of behaviour, which reside in the outer world. If human beings are to be changed, indeed saved, Skinner maintains, we must manipulate the environment that determines behaviour through its pattern of rewards and punishments (see The Behaviourist Approach†). Skinner believes that large-scale control over human behaviour is possible today but that the chief barrier to social engineering is an outmoded conception of people as free agents. Since Freud and Skinner’s basis for behaviour contrasts significantly, so does its approach to modification.Skinner and his colleagues staunchly recommend that behaviour can be controlled completely by manipulating their environment, and no t through Freud’s internal introspection. IV. Conclusion In conclusion, B. F Skinner basic assumption is based on the belief that all behaviors, â€Å"normal or deviant† are governed by the same learning principles. Behaviorism originated with John B. Watson around 1913 and was carried on later by such well-known psychologists as Clark Hull and B. F. Skinner. Watson argued that it is impossible to study in scientific way phenomena that can be known only through subjective reports.If psychology was to be a science, he said, psychologists would have to concentrate on objective analysis of observable behavior, such as movements and speech; they would have to stop attempting the study of such as mental phenomena as consciousness and thought, except insofar as these phenomena were reveled in behavior. It was not that Watson had no interest in so-called mental phenomena. In fact, during the early days of behaviorism, he formulated a theory that explained thinking as subvocal ization — as movements of the vocal chords that were so light as to produce no sound.This theory, if it had been correct, would have allowed behaviorists to study thinking by analyzing the movements of the vocal cords. It was soon pointed out, however, that some thinking occurs so rapidly that the subvocalized sounds would have to be made at frequencies well beyond the physical capacity of the vocal cords, and so the effort to treat thinking as subvocalization has largely been abandoned. Reference: 1. The Behaviourist Approach†. http://www. ryerson. ca/~glassman/behavior. html 2. Skinner, B. F.â€Å"Are Theories of Learning Necessary? † http://psychclassics. yorku. ca/Skinner/Theories/ 3. Smith R, Sarason I, and Sarason B. â€Å"The Behavioural Perspective: Humans as Reactors†. Psychology, The Frontiers of Behavior. 1986. p. 18 OUTLINE I. Introduction A. What is motivation? Motivation is a term used in psychology to mean the cause of behavior that is persi stently directed toward a goal. A simple reflex action, such as jerking one’s hand away from a hot stove, is not said to be motivated in the psychological sense.Motivation is usually made up of a combination of motives, which may also be called drives, incentives, or interests. Thesis Statement: This study summarizes the field of motivation and BF Skinners theoretical views and discuss his impact on the motivation field. II. Background A. Who Bf Skinner is B. F. Skinner was the foremost behavioral psychologist in the United States. Behavioral psychology, as distinguished from the earlier, mentalistic school which focused on the mind of man, is concerned with predicting and controlling the behavior of organisms, man included.III. Discussion A. Skinner and Radical Behaviourism By the end of the first decade of the twentieth century, Freud’s method of introspection had dominated American psychology. It has become the norm and a traditional method. However, a new set of th eory had developed out from dissatisfaction of the introspection method. IV. Conclusion In conclusion, B. F Skinner basic assumption is based on the belief that all behaviors, â€Å"normal or deviant† are governed by the same learning principles.

Proposals Relation to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania Essay

In the â€Å"Proposals Relation to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,† 1749, Benjamin Franklin reconciled public service, the benefits of classical learning, and the necessity of practical training for young people in the colony. Mr. Franklin discussed that knowledge helps to give honor. Not just honor to yourself for knowing what you are doing and talking about but, also an honor for your country to represent them if you were to become a part of office and have to communicate with others outside of country. Not even just to be in office but, to also become a minister or priest for a religion thanks to the studies of religious and civil morality. Thanks to their knowledge the academy will give to them they will be able to help their country in not just honoring them but, helping the citizens in the country. Due to their knowledge they will be able to give the citizens fair amounts of income, fair prices for taxes, and prayers. The men that will have this knowledge will not only be from a rich background with an abundance of money and high class families. As well as, poor background young men with little money and probably no family at all have a chance to receive an education and help their country. Then after one school is built to help young men, more and more can be built by other men with knowledge and help others get the education they once received. In this academy the students will learn similar subjects to what the modern day student learns today. Students will be taught the English language by reading some of the best authors in the 1700’s. There was Tillotson, Pope, Cato’s Letters, and etc. hould be some of the classics read. They will be taught to write with neat handwriting, swift drawing of arithmetic, accounts†¦ geometry, and astronomy. All of these can count as basic classes to help with any future job the student might want to have/achieve when they graduate. These basic classes can also help with everyday jobs, for example, directions in the stars while on a journey in the ocean or lost in the fore st (science), buying or trading goods for money (math), or even just being able to read and write a form of a constitution or charter (grammar). Benjamin Franklin also states â€Å"But art is long, and their time is short. † in paragraph 8 of â€Å"Proposals Relation to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,† 1749. In the passage, the author also talks of the necessities of practical training which has to do with knowing how to handle and work on machines and the histories on machine. Something that will be taught is the machines used in wars. Men can learn to make these machines and use them. Then they can improve them in ways to make them better so they can be used when needed. The knowledge of machines can help those week men that cannot do much physical work can invent new machines to reduce labor for all men and slaves. Manufacturing companies will begin to grow in ways of money and making more of what they sell. Their money will flourish and the companies will gain power. Once the companies grow, trade will also increase which can make that country gain more money also. That is when math and grammar also come in handy. Manufacturing companies will not only flourish but, farming as well because of the farming technique they give you, to plant cash crops and even plant your own foods to eat at home. Benjamin Franklin put to rights that public service, the benefits of classical learning, and the necessity of practical training for young men in the colonies by giving them knowledge to honor and help themselves and country. Next, the students learning the basics will help with future jobs and everyday lives. Lastly, the men learn to use and invent machines by learning their histories and how they were used. These arguments should make anyone want to open up an academy and teach young men.